Home All Issues Issue articles Previous article

Higher education in Türkiye in the shadow of chaos: A study on students from the faculty of education in times of crisis

Deniz Görgülü 1 *
1 Selçuklu Science and Art Centre, TÜRKİYE* Corresponding Author
Educational Point, 2(1), 2025, e119, https://doi.org/10.71176/edup/16452
Publication date: Jun 11, 2025
Research Article
Open Access Open Access
Download PDF

ABSTRACT

The impact of recent pandemics and natural disasters on societies requires a multidimensional examination. Chaos theory, which posits that small changes in the initial conditions of complex systems can lead to significant and unpredictable outcomes over time, can serve as a framework for this analysis. This study investigates the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and earthquakes—both of which can be regarded as social problem situations within the framework of chaos theory—on pre-service teachers. This study, conducted during the 2023–2024 academic year, employed an explanatory case study design—a qualitative research approach—to explore the lived experiences of 27 students enrolled at Necmettin Erbakan University. The findings indicate that a considerable majority of participants reported a decline in motivation, encountered psychological difficulties, and recognized a lack of professional development opportunities, all of which were attributed to the inadequacies of distance education. Consequently, many students articulated feelings of insufficient preparation for the teaching profession. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the earthquakes of 2023, which are regarded as chaotic events in Türkiye, distance education was implemented. However, the distance education methods used by universities to maintain their educational services were generally found to be inadequate. As a result, students faced several psycho-social challenges during this period. Furthermore, research findings indicate a widespread belief among students that they lack adequate professional competencies.

KEYWORDS

chaos theory higher education COVID-19 earthquake

CITATION (APA)

Görgülü, D. (2025). Higher education in Türkiye in the shadow of chaos: A study on students from the faculty of education in times of crisis. Educational Point, 2(1), e119. https://doi.org/10.71176/edup/16452
Harvard
Görgülü, D. (2025). Higher education in Türkiye in the shadow of chaos: A study on students from the faculty of education in times of crisis. Educational Point, 2(1), e119. https://doi.org/10.71176/edup/16452
Vancouver
Görgülü D. Higher education in Türkiye in the shadow of chaos: A study on students from the faculty of education in times of crisis. Educational Point. 2025;2(1):e119. https://doi.org/10.71176/edup/16452
AMA
Görgülü D. Higher education in Türkiye in the shadow of chaos: A study on students from the faculty of education in times of crisis. Educational Point. 2025;2(1), e119. https://doi.org/10.71176/edup/16452
Chicago
Görgülü, Deniz. "Higher education in Türkiye in the shadow of chaos: A study on students from the faculty of education in times of crisis". Educational Point 2025 2 no. 1 (2025): e119. https://doi.org/10.71176/edup/16452
MLA
Görgülü, Deniz "Higher education in Türkiye in the shadow of chaos: A study on students from the faculty of education in times of crisis". Educational Point, vol. 2, no. 1, 2025, e119. https://doi.org/10.71176/edup/16452

REFERENCES

  1. Abhari, S., Jalali, A., Jaafar, M., & Tajaddini, R. (2022). The impact of COVID-19 pandemic on small businesses in tourism and hospitality industry in Malaysia. Journal of Research in Marketing and Entrepreneurship, 24(1), 75–91. https://doi.org/10.1108/JRME-07-2020-0091
  2. Açıkalın, Ş. N., & Erçetin, Ş. Ş. (2022). Understanding COVID-19 with chaos theory: Dynamics and implications for societies. In Beyond COVID-19: Multidisciplinary approaches and outcomes on diverse fields (pp. 1–18). World Scientific Publishing Europe Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1142/9781800611450_0001
  3. Adedoyin, O. B., & Soykan, E. (2020). COVID-19 pandemic and online learning: The challenges and opportunities. Interactive Learning Environments, 31(2), 863–875. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2020.1813180
  4. Ahmad, N., Chew, Y. M., & Addul Razak, N. A. (2024). Online and face-to-face learning: Preferences. International Journal of Modern Education, 6(21), 339–351. https://doi.org/10.35631/ijmoe.621024
  5. Alfuqaha, O. A., Al-masarwah, U. M., Farah, R. I., Yasin, J. A., Alkuttob, L. A., Muslieh, N. I., Hammouri, M., Jawabreh, A. E., Aladwan, D. A., Barakat, R. O., & Alshubbak, N. H. (2023). The impact of Turkey and Syria earthquakes on university students: Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, meaning in life, and social support. Behavioral Sciences, 13(7), Article 587. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13070587
  6. Almaiah, M. A., Al-Khasawneh, A., & Althunibat, A. (2020). Exploring the critical challenges and factors influencing the e-learning system usage during COVID-19 pandemic. Education and Information Technologies, 25(6), 5261–5280. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-020-10219-y
  7. Almazova, N., Krylova, E., Rubtsova, A., & Odinokaya, M. (2020). Challenges and opportunities for Russian higher education amid COVID-19: Teachers’ perspective. Education Sciences, 10(12), Article 368. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci10120368
  8. Aristovnik, A., Keržič, D., Ravšelj, D., Tomaževič, N., & Umek, L. (2020). Impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on life of higher education students: A global perspective. Sustainability, 12(20), Article 8438. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12208438
  9. Bakhov, I., Opolska, N., Bogus, M., Anishchenko, V., & Biryukova, Y. (2021). Emergency distance education in the conditions of COVID-19 pandemic: Experience of Ukrainian universities. Education Sciences, 11(7), Article 364. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11070364
  10. Borah, M., Gayan, A., Sharma, J. S., Chen, Y., Wei, Z., & Pham, V. T. (2022). Is fractional-order chaos theory the new tool to model chaotic pandemics as COVID-19? Nonlinear Dynamics, 109(2), 1187–1215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11071-021-07196-3
  11. Bozkurt, A., & Sharma, R. C. (2020). Emergency remote teaching in a time of global crisis due to coronavirus pandemic. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3778083
  12. Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2021). Thematic analysis: A practical guide. Sage Publications.
  13. Braun, V., Clarke, V., Boulton, E., Davey, L., & McEvoy, C. (2020). The online survey as a qualitative research tool. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 24(6), 641–654. https://doi.org/10.1080/13645579.2020.1805550
  14. Byrne, D., & Callaghan, G. (2022). Complexity theory and the social sciences: The state of the art. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003213574
  15. Çelik, G., & Polat, G. (2018). The reflections of complexity theory on social work as an applied social science. İnsan ve Toplum Bilimleri Araştırmaları Dergisi, 7(2), 1320–1338. https://doi.org/10.15869/itobiad.377407
  16. Choi, J. O., & Hyun, S. S. (2024). Chaos theory perspective on tourism crisis management: A case study of the COVID‐19 pandemic in South Korea. International Journal of Tourism Research, 26(4), Article e2713. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.2713
  17. Costado Dios, M. T., & Piñero Charlo, J. C. (2021). Face-to-face vs. e-learning models in the COVID-19 era: Survey research in a Spanish university. Education Sciences, 11(6), Article 293. https://doi.org/10.3390/EDUCSCI11060293
  18. Crawford, J., Butler-Henderson, K., Rudolph, J., Malkawi, B., Glowatz, M., Burton, R., Magni, P. A., & Lam, S. (2020). COVID-19: 20 countries’ higher education intra-period digital pedagogy responses. Journal of Applied Learning & Teaching, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.37074/jalt.2020.3.1.7
  19. Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (3rd ed.). Sage Publications.
  20. Deng, J., Zhou, F., Hou, W., Silver, Z., Wong, C. Y., Chang, O., Drakos, A., Zuo, Q. K., & Huang, E. (2021). The prevalence of depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms and sleep disturbance in higher education students during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychiatry Research, 301, Article 113863. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2021.113863
  21. Dhawan, S. (2020). Online learning: A panacea in the time of COVID-19 crisis. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 49(1), 5–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047239520934018
  22. Erçetin, Ş. Ş., Açıkalın, Ş. N., & Vajzović, E. (2021). Chaos, complexity and leadership 2020. Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74057-3
  23. Gandolfi, E., Ferdig, R. E., & Kratcoski, A. (2021). A new educational normal an intersectionality-led exploration of education, learning technologies, and diversity during COVID-19. Technology in Society, 66, Article 101637. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2021.101637
  24. Gavurova, B., Khouri, S., Ivankova, V., Rigelsky, M., & Mudarri, T. (2022). Internet addiction, symptoms of anxiety, depressive symptoms, stress among higher education students during the COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Public Health, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.893845
  25. Geertz, C. (1973). The interpretation of cultures: Selected essays. Basic Books.
  26. Gonçalves, S. P., Sousa, M. J., & Pereira, F. S. (2020). Distance learning perceptions from higher education students—the case of Portugal. Education Sciences, 10(2), Article 374. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci10120374
  27. Gonzalez, T., de la Rubia, M. A., Hincz, K. P., Comas-Lopez, M., Subirats, L., Fort, S., & Sacha, G. M. (2020). Influence of COVID-19 confinement on students’ performance in higher education. PLoS ONE, 15(10), Article e0239490. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239490
  28. Gregersen, H., & Sailer, L. (1993). Chaos theory and its implications for social science research. Human Relations, 46(7), 777–802. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872679304600701
  29. Gu, J. (2021). Family conditions and the accessibility of online education: The digital divide and mediating factors. Sustainability, 13(15), Article 8590. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13158590
  30. Hao, G., Guo, J., Zhang, W., Chen, Y., & Yuen, D. A. (2022). High-precision chaotic radial basis function neural network model: Data forecasting for the earth electromagnetic signal before a strong earthquake. Geoscience Frontiers, 13(1), Article 101315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2021.101315
  31. Harris, G. (2023). Chaos theory of organizations. In Global encyclopedia of public administration, public policy, and governance (pp. 1495–1499). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66252-3_70
  32. Jehi, T., Khan, R., Dos Santos, H., & Majzoub, N. (2022). Effect of COVID-19 outbreak on anxiety among students of higher education: A review of literature. Current Psychology, 42, 17475–17489. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02587-6
  33. Jordan, K., David, R., Phillips, T., & Pellini, A. (2021). Education during the COVID-19: Crisis opportunities and constraints of using EdTech in low-income countries. Revista de Educación a Distancia (RED), 21(65). http://doi.org/10.6018/red.453621
  34. Kaya, M., & Bayram, S. S. (2024). Determining the impact of earthquakes on university students’ hope and anxiety levels. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 110, Article 104637. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2024.104637
  35. Khoshaim, H. B., Al-Sukayt, A., Chinna, K., Nurunnabi, M., Sundarasen, S., Kamaludin, K., Baloch, G. M., & Hossain, S. F. A. (2020). Anxiety level of university students during COVID-19 in Saudi Arabia. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11, Article 579750. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.579750
  36. Kiel, L. D., & Elliott, E. W. (1997). Chaos theory in the social sciences: Foundations and applications. University of Michigan Press. https://doi.org/10.3998/mpub.14623
  37. Kocoglu, E., Demir, F. B., Öteles, Ü. U., & Özeren, E. (2023). Post-earthquake trauma levels of university students evaluation: Example of 6 February Kahramanmaras earthquake. Higher Education Studies, 13(2), 121–127. https://doi.org/10.5539/hes.v13n2p121
  38. Kolaç, N., Eroğlu, N., & Nirgiz, C. (2024). Disaster risk perception and sustainable earthquake awareness among public and private university nursing students. Public Health Nursing, 42(1), 10–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/phn.13430
  39. König, J., Jäger-Biela, D. J., & Glutsch, N. (2020). Adapting to online teaching during COVID-19 school closure: Teacher education and teacher competence effects among early career teachers in Germany. European Journal of Teacher Education, 43(4), 608–622. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2020.1809650
  40. Kzar, A. A., & Mohammed, A. J. (2023). Strategic entrepreneurship under the chaos theory. Revista De Gestão Social E Ambiental, 17(7), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.24857/rgsa.v17n7-012
  41. Lal, D. B. (2023). A brief study report on the applications of chaos theory in real life. Middle East Journal of Applied Science Technology, 06(04), 52–58. https://doi.org/10.46431/mejast.2023.6404
  42. Liyanage, S., Saqib, K., Khan, A. F., Thobani, T. R., Tang, W. C., Chiarot, C. B., AlShurman, B. A., & Butt, Z. A. (2021). Prevalence of anxiety in university students during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(1), Article 62. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010062
  43. Lorenz, E. N. (1972). Predictability: Does the flap of a butterfly’s wings in Brazil set off a tornado in Texas? The 139th meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
  44. Mali, D., & Lim, H. (2021). How do students perceive face-to-face/blended learning as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic? The International Journal of Management Education, 19(3), Article 100552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2021.100552
  45. Marangoz, M., & İzci, Ç. (2023). Doğal afetlerin ekonomik, sosyal ve çevresel etkilerinin 6 Şubat 2023 Kahramanmaraş merkezli depremler bağlamında girişimciler açısından değerlendirilmesi [Evaluation of the economic, social, and environmental impacts of natural disasters on entrepreneurs in the context of the February 6, 2023 Kahramanmaraş centered earthquakes]. Sosyal ve Beşeri Bilimler Araştırmaları Dergisi, 24(52). https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/3091756
  46. Marinoni, G., Van’t Land, H., & Jensen, T. (2020). The impact of COVID-19 on higher education around the world: IAU global survey report. International Association of Universities. https://www.iau-aiu.net/IMG/pdf/iau_covid19_and_he_survey_report_final_may_2020.pdf
  47. Marler, E. K., Bruce, M. J., Abaoud, A., Henrichsen, C., Suksatan, W., Homvisetvongsa, S., & Matsuo, H. (2024). The impact of COVID-19 on university students’ academic motivation, social connection, and psychological well-being. Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology, 10(3), 320–330. https://doi.org/10.1037/stl0000294
  48. Martin, A. J. (2023). University students’ motivation and engagement during the COVID-19 pandemic: The roles of lockdown, isolation, and remote and hybrid learning. Australian Journal of Education, 67(2), 163–180. https://doi.org/10.1177/00049441231179791
  49. Mashuri, A., Adenan, N. H., Abd Karim, N. S., Tho, S. W., & Zeng, Z. (2024). Application of chaos theory in different fields - A literature review. Journal of Science and Mathematics Letters, 12(1), 92–101. https://doi.org/10.37134/jsml.vol12.1.11.2024
  50. Means, B., & Neisler, J. (2020). Suddenly online: A national survey of undergraduates during the COVID-19 pandemic. Digital Promise. https://doi.org/10.51388/20.500.12265/98
  51. Mishra, L., Gupta, T., & Shree, A. (2020). Online teaching-learning in higher education during lockdown period of COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 1, Article 100012. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2020.100012
  52. Muhammad, A., Idris, M. B., Ishaq, A. A., & Abdullah, A. K. (2023). The butterfly effect and its implications for resilience in complex socio-ecological systems. Journal of Environmental Science and Economics, 2(2), 38–49. https://doi.org/10.56556/jescae.v2i2.533
  53. Oestreicher, C. (2007). A history of chaos theory. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 9(3), 279–289. https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2007.9.3/coestreicher
  54. Othman, M. K., & Saabar, S. S. (2023). Racial complexity and political voting decision: A study on young voters in DUN Semenyih. Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities (MJSSH), 8(6), Article e002352. https://doi.org/10.47405/mjssh.v8i6.2352
  55. Pasion, R., Dias-Oliveira, E., Camacho, A., Morais, C., & Franco, R. (2020). Impact of COVID-19 on undergraduate business students: A longitudinal study on academic motivation, engagement and attachment to university. Accounting Research Journal, 34(2), 246–257. https://doi.org/10.1108/arj-09-2020-0286
  56. Patton, M. Q. (2015). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (4th ed.). SAGE Publications.
  57. Pietro, G. D. (2017). The academic impact of natural disasters: Evidence from l’aquila earthquake. Education Economics, 26(1), 62–77. https://doi.org/10.1080/09645292.2017.1394984
  58. Pogosyan, V. (2019). Change and variability of phenomena in complex social systems. Wisdom, 13(2), 95–103. https://doi.org/10.24234/wisdom.v13i2.276
  59. Postavaru, O., Anton, S. R., & Toma, A. (2021). COVID-19 pandemic and chaos theory. Mathematics and Computers in Simulation, 181, 138–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matcom.2020.09.029
  60. Pryor, R. G., & Bright, J. E. (2022). Chaos, complexity and COVID-19: The chaos theory of careers in 2022. Australian Journal of Career Development, 31(3), 201–205. https://doi.org/10.1177/10384162221120710
  61. Rahiem, M. D. (2021). Remaining motivated despite the limitations: university students’ learning propensity during the COVID-19 pandemic. Children and Youth Services Review, 120, Article 105802. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105802
  62. Rapanta, C., Botturi, L., Goodyear, P., Guàrdia, L., & Koole, M. (2020). Online university teaching during and after the COVID-19 crisis: Refocusing teacher presence and learning activity. Postdigital Science and Education, 2(3), 923–945. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42438-020-00155-y
  63. Reigeluth, C. M. (2023). Chaos theory and the sciences of complexity: Foundations for transforming educational systems. In Learning, design, and technology: An international compendium of theory, research, practice, and policy (pp. 1797–1808). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-17461-7_95
  64. Rodríguez-Hidalgo, A. J., Pantaleón, Y., Dios, I., & Falla, D. (2020). Fear of COVID-19, stress, and anxiety in university undergraduate students: A predictive model for depression. Frontiers in Psychology, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.591797
  65. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, Article 101860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860
  66. Sabırsız, E., & Şöhret, M. (2024). 6 Şubat depremlerinin Türkiye ekonomisi üzerindeki makroekonomik, sosyal ve çevresel etkileri [Macroeconomic, social and environmental effects of the February 6 earthquakes on the Turkish economy]. Akademik Yaklaşımlar Dergisi, 15(1 -Deprem Özel Sayısı-), 571–597. https://doi.org/10.54688/ayd.1390984
  67. Sadhukhan, B., Mukherjee, S., Banerjee, S., & Samanta, R. K. (2021). Multifractal, nonlinear, and chaotic nature of earthquake and global temperature. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 14(17), Article 1811. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-021-08153-5
  68. Şam, M., Sever, G., Yildiz Yüksel, H., & Aliyev, R. (2025). Earthquake effects on youth: Understanding psychological challenges and support needs. BMC Psychology, 13(1), Article 72. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-025-02373-0
  69. Senko, C., Hulleman, C. S., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2011). Achievement goal theory at the crossroads: old controversies, current challenges, and new directions. Educational Psychologist, 46(1), 26–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2011.538646
  70. Shaukat, S., Ali, A., Eleyan, A., Shah, S. A., & Ahmad, J. (2020). Chaos theory and its application: An essential framework for image encryption. Chaos Theory and Applications, 2(1), 17–22.
  71. Stacey, R. D. (2007). Strategic management and organisational dynamics: The challenge of complexity to ways of thinking about organisations (5th ed.). Pearson Education.
  72. Tang, Y. M., Chen, P. C., Law, K. M., Wu, C. H., Lau, Y. Y., Guan, J., He, D., & Ho, G. T. (2021). Comparative analysis of student’s live online learning readiness during the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic in the higher education sector. Computers & Education, 168, Article 104211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104211
  73. Telli, S. (2023). Türkiye’de deprem sonrası çevrimiçi öğrenmenin vazgeçilmezliği [The indispensability of online learning after the earthquake in Turkey]. Üniversite Araştırmaları Dergisi, 6(2), 125–136. https://doi.org/10.32329/uad.1268747
  74. Trip, H., Tabakakis, K., Maskill, V., Richardson, S., Dolan, B., Josland, H., McKay, L., Richardson, A., Cowan, L., Hickmott, B., & Houston, G. (2018). Psychological health and resilience: The impact of significant earthquake events on tertiary level professional students. A cross-sectional study. Contemporary Nurse, 54(3), 319–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/10376178.2018.1503549
  75. Trust, T., & Whalen, J. (2020). Should teachers be trained in emergency remote teaching? Lessons learned from the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 28(2), 189–199. https://doi.org/10.70725/307718pkpjuu
  76. UNESCO. (2020a). Education: From COVID-19 school closures to recovery. https://www.unesco.org/en/covid-19/education-response
  77. UNESCO. (2020b). COVID-19 educational disruption and response. https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/covid-19-educational-disruption-and-response
  78. Van Lancker, W., & Parolin, Z. (2020). COVID-19, school closures, and child poverty: A social crisis in the making. The Lancet Public Health, 5(5), e243–e244. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(20)30084-0
  79. Verma, H., Verma, G., & Kumar, P. (2021). Depression, anxiety, and stress during times of COVID-19: An analysis of youngsters studying in higher education in India. The Review of Socionetwork Strategies, 15(2), 471–488. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12626-021-00089-2
  80. Watermeyer, R., Crick, T., Knight, C., & Goodall, J. (2021). COVID-19 and digital disruption in UK universities: Afflictions and affordances of emergency online migration. Higher Education, 81(3), 623–641. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-020-00561-y
  81. Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1015
  82. Yamaguchi, T., & Mizutani, T. (2024). Predicting the maximum displacements of structures during an earthquake based on chaos theory. Engineering Structures, 318, Article 118794. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2024.118794
  83. Yıldırım, S. (2023). 6 Şubat Kahramanmaraş depreminin psikososyal etkisi ve depremzedelere yönelik sürdürülebilir müdahalenin önemi üzerine bir gözlem araştırması [An observation study on the psychosocial impact of the February 6 Kahramanmaraş earthquake and the importance of sustainable response to earthquake victims]. Anasay, (24), 133–153. https://doi.org/10.33404/anasay.1286368
  84. Yin, R. K. (2018). Case study research and applications: Design and methods (6th ed.). SAGE Publications.

LICENSE

Creative Commons License
This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.