Keyword: trust

ABSTRACT: Artificial intelligence (AI) is rapidly reshaping school leadership within Education 4.0, offering enhanced decision-making and organisational efficiency while intensifying ethical concerns regarding transparency, bias, and accountability. Existing research has largely treated these opportunities and risks as separate phenomena, overlooking the relational processes through which AI is enacted in practice. This paper advances a process-based conceptualisation by positioning trust as the central mediating mechanism in AI-enabled school leadership. It argues that AI does not produce outcomes directly; rather, its effects are contingent on how it is accepted, interpreted, and enacted within school contexts. The proposed framework shows that trust shapes whether AI leads to constructive outcomes, including ethical use, professional engagement, and improvement, or to disruptive consequences such as resistance and mistrust. Leadership is conceptualised as a key antecedent of trust, highlighting the centrality of relational governance in the effective and responsible integration of AI in schools.

ABSTRACT: A consensus exists in transnational educational policy regarding the relevance of accountability and the contribution of school evaluation to education quality. This paper scrutinises the evaluation results of Portuguese schools provided by the Inspectorate services using a pairwise comparison between 194 schools evaluated in 2018-2020 and 2021-2023. Regarding the literature gap on the behaviour of accountability systems over time, this study can contribute to a reflection on justice and transparency in high-stakes systems. The findings suggest that (i) the external evaluation results drift following a directional evolutionary model, indicating progression concerning the self-evaluation, educational services, and results domains; (ii) the occurrence of standardisation and leadership legitimisation phenomenon; (iii) possible side effects in the schools' evaluation process, namely evasive behaviour, apparent and constructed realities, and evaluation distortion; (iv) the external evaluation framework flexibility in accommodating territorial differences between schools without producing system disadvantage. Departing from insights into how a high-stakes external evaluation system operates over time, the study offers an empirically grounded assumption that reveals dynamics not unique to Portugal, but characteristic of accountability regimes adopted across many educational systems. In conclusion, to improve the quality of education, low-stakes accountability systems should be implemented to strengthen transparent schools' autonomy.