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Explaining Cross-National Variations in AI Policy Enactment: Indonesia, Finland, and South Korea

Muh Fitrah 1 * ,
Ruslan Ruslan 2,
Luthfiyah Luthfiyah 2,
Umar Umar 2,
Mei Indra Jayanti 3,
Israfil Israfil 3,
Sudarmin Sudarmin 3,
Fathurrahman Fathurrahman 2,
Aminullah Aminullah 3
1 Independent Researcher, Bima, INDONESIA2 Universitas Muhammadiyah Bima, INDONESIA3 Universitas Nggusuwaru, INDONESIA* Corresponding Author
Educational Point, 3(3), 2026, e186, https://doi.org/10.71176/edup/19335
Publication date: Sep 22, 2026
Research Article
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ABSTRACT

The development of artificial intelligence in education has outpaced the institutionalisation of policies governing its use, accountability, and implementation. Cross-national scholarship remains dominated by discussions of adoption, pedagogical opportunities, and ethical risks, while variation in policy enactment across national education systems remains underexplained. This study examines artificial intelligence policy enactment in Indonesia, Finland, and South Korea through a comparative qualitative policy analysis of 22 core and supporting policy documents. The analysis focused on policy orientation, the locus of enactment authority, regulatory-ethical institutionalisation, and implementation mode. The findings show that the main differences across the three systems do not lie in technology adoption itself, but in the logic through which policy is enacted. Indonesia demonstrates capacity-led enactment shaped by gradual implementation and teacher capacity building. Finland demonstrates regulatory-literacy enactment mediated by education providers and structured through regulation, ethics, and AI literacy. South Korea demonstrates scaled rollout enactment driven by state direction, infrastructure support, and personalised learning reform. The study proposes a three-part typology comprising capacity-led enactment, regulatory-literacy enactment, and scaled rollout enactment, and argues that cross-national variation in artificial intelligence policy in education is best explained through the arrangement of authority, regulatory-ethical institutionalisation, and implementation instruments.

KEYWORDS

comparative education policy enactment education governance artificial intelligence in education digital transformation

CITATION (APA)

Fitrah, M., Ruslan, R., Luthfiyah, L., Umar, U., Jayanti, M. I., Israfil, I., Sudarmin, S., Fathurrahman, F., & Aminullah, A. (2026). Explaining Cross-National Variations in AI Policy Enactment: Indonesia, Finland, and South Korea. Educational Point, 3(3), e186. https://doi.org/10.71176/edup/19335
Harvard
Fitrah, M., Ruslan, R., Luthfiyah, L., Umar, U., Jayanti, M. I., Israfil, I., . . . Aminullah, A. (2026). Explaining Cross-National Variations in AI Policy Enactment: Indonesia, Finland, and South Korea. Educational Point, 3(3), e186. https://doi.org/10.71176/edup/19335
Vancouver
Fitrah M, Ruslan R, Luthfiyah L, Umar U, Jayanti MI, Israfil I, et al. Explaining Cross-National Variations in AI Policy Enactment: Indonesia, Finland, and South Korea. Educational Point. 2026;3(3):e186. https://doi.org/10.71176/edup/19335
AMA
Fitrah M, Ruslan R, Luthfiyah L, et al. Explaining Cross-National Variations in AI Policy Enactment: Indonesia, Finland, and South Korea. Educational Point. 2026;3(3), e186. https://doi.org/10.71176/edup/19335
Chicago
Fitrah, Muh, Ruslan Ruslan, Luthfiyah Luthfiyah, Umar Umar, Mei Indra Jayanti, Israfil Israfil, Sudarmin Sudarmin, Fathurrahman Fathurrahman, and Aminullah Aminullah. "Explaining Cross-National Variations in AI Policy Enactment: Indonesia, Finland, and South Korea". Educational Point 2026 3 no. 3 (2026): e186. https://doi.org/10.71176/edup/19335
MLA
Fitrah, Muh et al. "Explaining Cross-National Variations in AI Policy Enactment: Indonesia, Finland, and South Korea". Educational Point, vol. 3, no. 3, 2026, e186. https://doi.org/10.71176/edup/19335

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